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Reprinted from the Journal of Developmental=20 Education, Volume 26, Issue 3, Spring, 2003.=20
Principles =
for Effective=20
Teaching
By Patricia=20
Smittle
=20
ABSTRACT: Effective teaching in developmental education is =
one of the=20
most challenging jobs in the college teaching profession. The search for =
teaching excellence in this field extends beyond basic cognitive issues =
to=20
address noncognitive needs of underprepared students also. The six =
principles=20
for effective developmental education teaching reviewed in the article =
are the=20
product of integrating research findings from successful developmental =
education=20
programs and general principles for effective teaching in undergraduate=20
education. The principles focus on key elements that teachers may use to =
support=20
effective teaching.
=20
Many teaching professionals spend their entire careers in search =
of=20
teaching excellence. This search may be even more important when =
students are=20
underprepared adults. These students lack the foundation and skills =
required for=20
rigorous college curriculum and many of them have adult responsibilities =
that=20
place excessive demands on their time and other resources. These =
students=20
present challenges to developmental educators that often far exceed =
those=20
presented by traditional college students: =93How to guide and teach =
students who=20
are underprepared for traditional college level studies is the thorniest =
single=20
problem for community colleges=94 (Cohen & Brawer, 1982, p. 236 ). =
This=20
challenge extends throughout all levels of postsecondary education with=20
developmental education serving as a gateway to postsecondary education =
for many=20
students in this country. According to the National Center for Education =
Statistics (NCES), in 1999-2000, 32% of all freshmen in 4-year colleges =
and=20
universities and 41% of community college freshmen required remedial =
education=20
(NCES, 2001).
=20
Research findings of successful developmental education programs =
and=20
general principles of effective practice in teaching offer a strong =
foundation=20
in the search for teaching excellence in developmental education. During =
the=20
last decade, much has been written about the characteristics of =
successful=20
developmental education programs. Boylan and Bonham (1998) provide a=20
comprehensive analysis of developmental education programs in =
=93Improving=20
Developmental Education: What We=92ve Learned from 30 Years of =
Research.=94 In this=20
study, they identify 20 characteristics of successful programs. Eight of =
those=20
characteristics relate directly to teaching: variety of teaching =
methods, sound=20
cognitive theory-based courses, computer-based instruction to supplement =
regular=20
classroom activities, classroom/laboratory integration, developmental =
course=20
exit standards that are consistent with entry standards for subsequent =
courses,=20
strategic learning that teaches students how to monitor their =
comprehension and=20
think strategically about learning, professional training for faculty =
and staff=20
who work with developmental students, and critical thinking that focuses =
on the=20
types of thinking required in college-level=20
courses.
=20
Roueche and Roueche (1999) identify characteristics of successful =
developmental education programs similar to those of Boylan and Bonham =
(1998),=20
with the addition of one very significant factor: recruiting, =
developing, and=20
hiring the best faculty. This characteristic may actually be the single =
most=20
important factor in successful programs.
=20
Perhaps the most widely used college teaching guidelines relative =
to=20
general principles of effective practice in teaching are the =93Seven =
Principles=20
of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education=94 (Chickering & Gamson, =
1987;=20
Chickering & Reisser, 1993). The guidelines suggest that good =
practices=20
encourage student-faculty contact, promote cooperation among students, =
encourage=20
active learning, give prompt feedback, emphasize time on task, =
communicate high=20
expectations, and respect diverse talents.
=20
It is not surprising that there are many commonalities among =
these=20
studies. All of the elements required for effective college teaching =
apply to=20
effective developmental education teaching as well. However, it may be =
even more=20
imperative to apply them in work with developmental students and for=20
developmental teachers to be more precise and in-depth. For example, the =
teacher=20
of traditional college students can simply encourage active learning and =
usually=20
achieve the desired student outcome. On the other hand, encouragement is =
not=20
enough for most developmental students. The developmental education =
teacher must=20
structure and lead the activities for developmental students while =
teaching them=20
to become independent learners. Also, the issue of frequent feedback is =
more=20
demanding with developmental students since they usually lack the =
ability to=20
judge their own progress. Moreover, respect for diverse talents and ways =
of=20
learning takes on a deeper meaning when it is applied to developmental =
students=20
who are much less homogeneous than traditional college students. =
Nevertheless,=20
all the aspects of teaching excellence important to developmental =
education=20
students represent a model for teaching all=20
students.
Principle #1: Commit to Teaching Underprepared =
Students
=20
Unfortunately, some teachers teach developmental students for =
reasons=20
that are not in the best interest of students. Perhaps the developmental =
class=20
fits their desired teaching schedules, they think the developmental =
course will=20
require less preparation and they will have more time to spend on their =
higher=20
level courses or some other activity, or they may be teaching =
out-of-field and=20
the college will not allow them to teach anything else. In some cases, =
their=20
performance may be unsatisfactory in other areas so they are assigned to =
teach=20
developmental courses. Further, research of staffing patterns has =
indicated that=20
=93among all institutions and all subject 72% of those teaching =
developmental=20
courses are part-time=94 (Boylan, Bohham, Jackson, & Saxon, 1994), a =
pattern=20
that does not exhibit strong institutional commitment to developmental=20
education. In reality, teachers who choose to teach developmental =
students must=20
have visions for those students, know they can make a difference, and be =
willing=20
to work hard to help students succeed.
=20
The literature is replete with admonitions to select teachers who =
are=20
interested and desire to teach underprepared students. For example, =
Roueche and=20
Roueche (1993) have suggested this in the first national study on =
remedial=20
programs in 1968.
Because teacher = attitudes are=20 probably related to student achievement, no teacher should be = arbitrarily=20 assigned to teach a remedial class if he or she would rather not teach = that=20 class, nor should any teacher be assigned who is only mildly = interested in=20 doing so: uninterested teachers cannot be expected to motivate = students who=20 are typically characterized by a lack of motivation.=20 (p.58)
=20
Another early warning was issued by Cross in 1976. She observed =
that a=20
lack of achievement was more than a simple cognitive issue, so she =
admonished=20
that knowledge of learning problems, along with interest and commitment, =
were=20
critical factors in choosing staff to work with developmental students. =
These=20
strong admonitions are still relevant n the 21st century. =
Selection=20
of teachers to work with this special population is an important issue =
that=20
should not be taken lightly.
Principle #2: Demonstrate Good Command of the =
Subject=20
Matter and the Ability to Teach a Diverse Student =
Population
=20
Proficiency in subject matter is critical for developmental =
education=20
teachers. Since developmental students have generally been unsuccessful =
with=20
traditional instructional methods and materials, effective developmental =
teachers must be able to present the subject matter in different ways, =
requiring=20
teachers to have in-depth knowledge of the concepts and skills they=92re =
teaching=20
as well as higher level content knowledge in the =
field.
=20
When selecting teachers, it is important to follow the credential =
standards set forth by the college=92s accrediting agent for all =
teachers=20
including developmental education instructors. For example, the Southern =
Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges (SACS; 1998) =
requires,
Faculty members = who teach in=20 remedial programs must hold a baccalaureate degree in a discipline = related to=20 their assignment and have either teaching experience in a discipline = related=20 to their assignment or graduate training in remedial education. (p. = 43)=20
=20
Although subject matter knowledge that is documented by =
professional=20
credentials is critical, it is not enough for effective developmental =
education=20
teachers. The ability to convey that knowledge to students who lack the =
subject=20
matter foundation is the major challenge. Unfortunately, many new =
teachers try=20
to employ the same teaching techniques their graduate professors used=20
successfully, since this is their most recent experience with the=20
teaching/learning environment. This is one of the biggest mistakes =
teachers can=20
make, especially with developmental students who may have had little =
academic=20
success.
=20
First, when working with at-risk students, teaching and learning =
activities must be=20
highly structured, with all requirements and standards clearly stated =
(Boylan=20
& Bonham, 1998). Developmental students need to know exactly what is =
expected of them and when it is due. Teaching students how to pace their =
work is=20
one of the most important things a teacher can do. Students often =
underestimate=20
the amount of work required and the time required to complete it, so =
teachers=20
need to help students develop specific plans. A helpful strategy is to =
require=20
students to turn in drafts or small segments of their work as they =
proceed=20
toward the final product. Second, many developmental students require a =
lot of=20
time-on-task. Scheduled and supervised activities in class, in labs, and =
with=20
tutors facilitate the =93pacing skills=94 often lacking for at-risk =
students. Third,=20
developmental students perform better when the curriculum they are =
studying=20
relates to the real world and their specific interests (Cross, 2000). =
Fourth,=20
information should be presented in small chunks that allow students to =
link new=20
material to something they already know. Fifth, since developmental =
education is=20
providing the foundation for more advanced learning, mastery of the =
content is=20
important. If students fail to master one set of skills, concepts, or =
knowledge=20
before they move on to the next level, gaps similar to the problems the =
students=20
are already experiencing are created. Finally, frequent testing and =
immediate=20
feedback are critical for developmental students. Wambach, Brothen, and =
Dikel=20
(2000) report that many developmental students lack the ability to =
provide their=20
own feedback. These authors note, =93highly skilled students are better =
able to=20
know they have understood what they have read, to know whether they are =
prepared=20
for an exam, and to evaluate how well they have done on exams. They know =
the=20
difference between simply doing and actually learning assignments=94 (p. =
8).=20
Therefore, early, frequent, meaningful, and clear feedback is a major =
factor in=20
helping students hone their metacognitive =
skills.
=20
Effective teachers use knowledge of their students' varied =
learning=20
styles as they plan their instruction. Boylan and Bonham (1998) report =
that=20
developmental students learn in ways not generally accommodated through=20
traditional instruction. However, many teachers still teach the way they =
were=20
taught. This pattern is likely to be least effective in the =
developmental=20
classroom where most students failed to learn the course content in =
traditional=20
high school classes; it is unlikely that they=92ll learn via the same=20
instructional methods in college. Knowledge of whether students are =
visual,=20
auditory, or tactile learners and whether they prefer to work =
individually or in=20
groups should shape the instructional delivery system and learning =
materials=20
offered. Boylan and Bonham (1998) cite several studies which reveal that =
many=20
developmental students are hands-on learners. Research indicates that=20
collaborative learning, when well structured as part of the learning =
activities,=20
is helpful in getting students actively involved. Cross (2000) reports, =
=93There=20
is strong support from neuroanatomy and from cognitive science for the =
thesis=20
that students must actively involve themselves in their own learning=94 =
(p. 28).=20
Moreover, she reports that students are well-motivated to get involved =
in=20
learning when they are faced with peers who depend on them and, in turn, =
nurture=20
them in challenging learning tasks. Research from Casazza and Silverman =
(1996)=20
shows that students in remedial courses are more likely to be successful =
when a=20
variety of instructional methods are used.
Principle #3: Address Noncognitive Issues that =
Affect=20
Learning
=20
Underprepared adults in developmental education programs often =
carry many=20
nonacademic problems with them when they enroll in college. Therefore, =
the=20
successful developmental education teacher must develop the whole =
student rather=20
than solely deal with cognitive skill deficits. According to Astin =
(1984),=20
successful developmental education programs for underprepared students =
must deal=20
with affective as well as cognitive needs.
=20
Teachers indicate that motivating students to learn and to =
participate in=20
learning activities may be the most difficult task, especially in =
working with=20
developmental students. Related affective characteristics, such as=20
self-regulation and academic procrastination, can be influenced by =
motivation.=20
Kachgal, Hansen, and Nutter (2001) have reported that procrastination=20
=93compromises an individual=92s ability to set and achieve personal, =
academic, and=20
career related goals=94 through self-regulated behavior. Further, =
Wambach et al.=20
(2000) state that students who can self-identify skill areas that need=20
improvement and are motivated to pursue assistance to gain appropriate =
skills=20
are self-regulated. =93The conscious development of self-regulation is =
the task=20
that might distinguish developmental education programs from other =
postsecondary=20
education programs=94 (p. 3). Some teachers, especially those with =
graduate school=20
mentalities, declare that it is not their responsibility to motivate =
students.=20
These teachers need to engage in professional development quickly. It =
is,=20
indeed, the responsibility of developmental education and all education =
to help=20
students sustain the motivation that led them to enroll in courses at =
the=20
beginning of the semester and strengthen that motivation as the term =
progresses.=20
Teachers are challenged to try to determine how and when students lost =
their=20
motivation and help them regain that initial vision. Of course, =
motivation is a=20
team effort: No teacher can motivate a student who does not want to join =
the=20
effort.
=20
McCombs (1991) and the Stanford University Newsletter on =
Teaching=20
(=93Speaking of,=94 1998) recommend these strategies for motivating =
students: define=20
course goals and help students think about personal learning goals, make =
use of=20
students=92 interests and background knowledge, show the relevance of =
material,=20
teach students skills for independent learning, and give helpful and =
frequent=20
feedback.
=20
Helping students set goals is critical to maintaining motivation. =
Unfortunately, many teachers assume that adults in college have =
well-defined=20
goals for their lives and they should recognize that the developmental =
courses=20
are the first step toward achieving those goals. It is the =
responsibility of the=20
teacher to help students set both short- and long-term goals. At this =
point=20
professional teamwork is vital, and the teacher may need to call on the =
advisors=20
to help. Goal setting may well be the factor that determines if the =
student will=20
complete the developmental course and continue in school long enough to =
achieve=20
those goals. Tinto (1993) reported that students who have clear goals =
are more=20
likely to be retained. An effective developmental education teacher =
helps each=20
student create a vision and see how the course and everyday activities =
help to=20
achieve that goal, a first step that should be repeated throughout the =
student=92s=20
academic career.
=20
Developing and maintaining positive self-esteem is important for=20
developmental students. Although some of them don=92t show it, they =
often have low=20
self-esteem, especially in regard to academic work. Teachers can help =
students=20
overcome those perceptions that impede learning by using suggestions =
from=20
research: create a supportive environment among students, enhance =
self-esteem=20
through comments such as =93you=92re on the right track...,=94 simplify =
objectives and=20
learning, use success in learning to promote student satisfaction, =
demand=20
specificity in learning, advise and coach frequently, and avoid =
excessive=20
negative feedback (Presiosi, 1990).
Principle #4: Provide Open and Responsive =
Learning=20
Environments
=20
=20
Cross (2000) reports, =93Research clearly shows that students who =
are most=20
likely to drop out of college are students who are not connected with =
the people=20
and events of the college=94 (p. 1). She notes that the connections need =
not=20
always be face-to-face. They can be electronic via email or chat rooms,=20
telephone calls, or letters, but humans need some way to feel that they =
belong.=20
It is easy for developmental students to convince themselves that they =
are so=20
far behind that the teacher would not want them back in class. A phone =
call or=20
letter can be all it takes to assure most students that they still =
belong in the=20
class and they will receive support to help them catch up. It is =
important for=20
teachers to obtain local telephone numbers, addresses, and e-mail =
addresses from=20
students on the first day of class. Tinto (1993) reports that being =
connected to=20
the classroom and college has a significant effect on=20
retention.
=20
Students need to know that teachers recognize them as =
individuals.=20
Goodman (2001) has found that simply calling students=92 names aloud =
when checking=20
attendance has a positive effect on attendance. He has concluded that =
teachers=20
could enhance retention and attendance by orally calling the class roll =
and=20
making individual comments when returning papers to=20
students.
=20
Another strategy to promote feelings of belonging is for the =
teacher to=20
arrange to meet with individual students during office hours. Although =
office=20
hours are posted and announced, many students will not take the =
initiative to go=20
to the teacher=92s office without a personal invitation or appointment.=20
Ironically, teachers often feel rejected when students don=92t respond =
to their=20
open announcement of office hours. This feeling of rejection may create =
a=20
barrier between the teacher and student. Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) =
report,=20
=93The educational impact of a college=92s faculty is enhanced when =
their contacts=20
with students extend beyond the formal classroom to informal =
non-classroom=20
settings=94 (p. 620). Such interaction gives the teacher the opportunity =
to get to=20
know students better, and it helps students learn the value of using =
office=20
hours that teachers set aside for them.
Principle #5: Communicate High=20
Standards
=20
It is important that academic standards in developmental classes =
be=20
established in cooperation with the college-level curriculum to which =
students=20
will advance (Boylan & Bonham, 1998). Teachers must have clear=20
understandings of the subsequent curriculum and how it relates to the=20
developmental education curriculum. Otherwise, they may give =
developmental=20
students false security and preparation that may doom them to failure =
when they=20
move into college-level work. One measure of a successful developmental=20
education program is the success of the students in subsequent courses, =
data=20
used by administrators and system evaluators as well. Moreover, teachers =
can=20
also use this information as one gauge of their own teaching=20
success.
=20
Maintaining high performance standards may have other benefits. =
Wambach=20
et al. (2000) discuss the importance of students learning =
self-regulatory=20
behaviors that help them take responsibility for their own actions and =
learning.=20
They suggest that self-regulation is developed through demanding =
situations.=20
Therefore, it seems important for developmental educators to hold =
students to=20
high standards of excellence and =
expectations.
=20
Some students, especially those who recently graduated from high =
school,=20
may engage in behaviors that are disrespectful to teachers and other =
students. A=20
major responsibilitiy of classroom teachers is to maintain a good =
learning=20
environment for the entire class; they should not allow disrespectful =
behavior=20
to disrupt this environment.
Principle #6: Engage in Ongoing Evaluation and Professional=20
Development
=20
Boylan and Bonham (1998) and Roueche and Roueche (1993) both =
examined=20
successful developmental programs and identified program evaluation as a =
key=20
element. However, program =
evaluation does not always include faculty evaluation and subsequent =
improvement=20
in faculty performance. Faculty improvement is usually achieved through=20
professional development activities that include reading professional =
journals,=20
writing professional articles, taking courses, and attending =
professional=20
workshops and conferences. These activities are time-consuming, but =
effective=20
developmental educators make this a part of their continuing=20
education.
=20
Baiocco and DeWaters (1998) contend that professional development =
is the=20
key to helping effective teachers manage change that is inherent in the=20
21st century. Effective teachers are constantly embracing =
change in=20
their quest for improvement and also applying findings from evaluation =
outcomes=20
to enhance teaching effectiveness and student=20
success.
=20
Maxwell (2000) stressed the critical need for professional =
development in=20
the field of developmental education: =93Few of the approximately =
104,000=20
individuals working in developmental education were specifically trained =
to work=20
with developmental students, or for that matter to teach college =
students=94 (p.=20
vii-xi). She adds that there are only four graduate training programs =
for=20
training professionals in developmental education, =93thus most are =
trained to=20
teach in specific disciplines or to work with younger or older =
populations=94 (p.=20
vii-xi). She suggested developing a certification system, such as the =
one=20
offered by the Kellogg Institute, to expand certification of individuals =
and=20
prepare master teachers who can mentor their fellow professionals in =
given=20
programs. In his policy paper to the Education Commission of the States, =
Spann=20
(2000) has recommended that colleges =93require initial training and =
ongoing=20
professional development by educators working with underskilled students =
in a=20
multicultural society=94 (p. 3). Effective teachers wholeheartedly =
embrace these=20
opportunities.
Conclusion
=20
If the democratic ideals of our educational and governmental =
systems are=20
to be supported by American higher education, it is essential that =
higher=20
education is truly open to all interested citizens. Further, in order =
for higher=20
education to serve the needs of our general populace, quality teaching =
in higher=20
education is imperative. Faculty at postsecondary institutions must =
recognize=20
and embrace the importance of developing teaching skills that enhance =
learning=20
for all types of students in tandem with continuing development of their =
content-area knowledge.
=20
The principles for effective teaching presented in this article =
apply to=20
all instructors and all students. Since many developmental students have =
already=20
demonstrated a lack of success in learning environments which do not =
apply such=20
principles, they may be the students most likely to fail without the =
benefit of=20
instructors trained to help them meet their full potential. =93Colleges =
must=20
increase the support and structure they offer at-risk students, who need =
support=20
and structure more than any other students in higher education=94 =
(Roueche &=20
Roueche, 1999, p. 2). Student classroom experiences provide myriad =
opportunities=20
for developing the whole student. Teachers can use and apply the =
principles of=20
commitment; command of subject matter and ability to teach diverse =
students;=20
integration of affective skill development; provision of connected, open =
learning environments; high-performance expectations; and ongoing =
evaluation and=20
professional development to offer their best to=20
students.
=20
An anonymous writer defined ignorance as =93doing the same thing =
over and=20
over while expecting a different outcome.=94 Unfortunately this fits the =
practices=20
of some colleges and teachers as they relate to instructing =
developmental=20
students. Colleges must support effective teaching in developmental =
education as=20
a base and expand it across the entire curriculum in order to avoid =
dismal=20
outcomes. The application of principles for effective teaching will help =
better=20
prepare teachers in their quest to assist students in meeting their=20
goals.
&nbs=
p;  =
; =
&=
nbsp; &n=
bsp; &nb=
sp; &nbs=
p;  =
; =20
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