Principles for = Effective Teaching

Reprinted from the Journal of Developmental=20 Education, Volume 26, Issue 3, Spring, 2003.=20

Principles = for Effective=20 Teaching

By Patricia=20 Smittle

=20 ABSTRACT: Effective teaching in developmental education is = one of the=20 most challenging jobs in the college teaching profession. The search for = teaching excellence in this field extends beyond basic cognitive issues = to=20 address noncognitive needs of underprepared students also. The six = principles=20 for effective developmental education teaching reviewed in the article = are the=20 product of integrating research findings from successful developmental = education=20 programs and general principles for effective teaching in undergraduate=20 education. The principles focus on key elements that teachers may use to = support=20 effective teaching.

=20 Many teaching professionals spend their entire careers in search = of=20 teaching excellence. This search may be even more important when = students are=20 underprepared adults. These students lack the foundation and skills = required for=20 rigorous college curriculum and many of them have adult responsibilities = that=20 place excessive demands on their time and other resources. These = students=20 present challenges to developmental educators that often far exceed = those=20 presented by traditional college students: =93How to guide and teach = students who=20 are underprepared for traditional college level studies is the thorniest = single=20 problem for community colleges=94 (Cohen & Brawer, 1982, p. 236 ). = This=20 challenge extends throughout all levels of postsecondary education with=20 developmental education serving as a gateway to postsecondary education = for many=20 students in this country. According to the National Center for Education = Statistics (NCES), in 1999-2000, 32% of all freshmen in 4-year colleges = and=20 universities and 41% of community college freshmen required remedial = education=20 (NCES, 2001).

=20 Research findings of successful developmental education programs = and=20 general principles of effective practice in teaching offer a strong = foundation=20 in the search for teaching excellence in developmental education. During = the=20 last decade, much has been written about the characteristics of = successful=20 developmental education programs. Boylan and Bonham (1998) provide a=20 comprehensive analysis of developmental education programs in = =93Improving=20 Developmental Education: What We=92ve Learned from 30 Years of = Research.=94 In this=20 study, they identify 20 characteristics of successful programs. Eight of = those=20 characteristics relate directly to teaching: variety of teaching = methods, sound=20 cognitive theory-based courses, computer-based instruction to supplement = regular=20 classroom activities, classroom/laboratory integration, developmental = course=20 exit standards that are consistent with entry standards for subsequent = courses,=20 strategic learning that teaches students how to monitor their = comprehension and=20 think strategically about learning, professional training for faculty = and staff=20 who work with developmental students, and critical thinking that focuses = on the=20 types of thinking required in college-level=20 courses.

=20 Roueche and Roueche (1999) identify characteristics of successful = developmental education programs similar to those of Boylan and Bonham = (1998),=20 with the addition of one very significant factor: recruiting, = developing, and=20 hiring the best faculty. This characteristic may actually be the single = most=20 important factor in successful programs.

=20 Perhaps the most widely used college teaching guidelines relative = to=20 general principles of effective practice in teaching are the =93Seven = Principles=20 of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education=94 (Chickering & Gamson, = 1987;=20 Chickering & Reisser, 1993). The guidelines suggest that good = practices=20 encourage student-faculty contact, promote cooperation among students, = encourage=20 active learning, give prompt feedback, emphasize time on task, = communicate high=20 expectations, and respect diverse talents.

=20 It is not surprising that there are many commonalities among = these=20 studies. All of the elements required for effective college teaching = apply to=20 effective developmental education teaching as well. However, it may be = even more=20 imperative to apply them in work with developmental students and for=20 developmental teachers to be more precise and in-depth. For example, the = teacher=20 of traditional college students can simply encourage active learning and = usually=20 achieve the desired student outcome. On the other hand, encouragement is = not=20 enough for most developmental students. The developmental education = teacher must=20 structure and lead the activities for developmental students while = teaching them=20 to become independent learners. Also, the issue of frequent feedback is = more=20 demanding with developmental students since they usually lack the = ability to=20 judge their own progress. Moreover, respect for diverse talents and ways = of=20 learning takes on a deeper meaning when it is applied to developmental = students=20 who are much less homogeneous than traditional college students. = Nevertheless,=20 all the aspects of teaching excellence important to developmental = education=20 students represent a model for teaching all=20 students.

=20 Volkwein and Cabrera (1998) suggest that the single most = important factor=20 in affecting multiple aspects of student growth and satisfaction is the=20 classroom experience. The key to teaching developmental students = successfully is=20 to assure that teaching practices are consistent with the = characteristics of=20 successful programs and the principles of effective teaching. The six = principles=20 for effective teaching and their subsequent explanations are offered as = a tool=20 to help developmental educators in their search for teaching excellence. = Additionally, institutions may find the principles helpful as they = employ and=20 train teachers to build successful developmental and mainstream = education=20 programs.

Principle #1: Commit to Teaching Underprepared = Students

=20 Unfortunately, some teachers teach developmental students for = reasons=20 that are not in the best interest of students. Perhaps the developmental = class=20 fits their desired teaching schedules, they think the developmental = course will=20 require less preparation and they will have more time to spend on their = higher=20 level courses or some other activity, or they may be teaching = out-of-field and=20 the college will not allow them to teach anything else. In some cases, = their=20 performance may be unsatisfactory in other areas so they are assigned to = teach=20 developmental courses. Further, research of staffing patterns has = indicated that=20 =93among all institutions and all subject 72% of those teaching = developmental=20 courses are part-time=94 (Boylan, Bohham, Jackson, & Saxon, 1994), a = pattern=20 that does not exhibit strong institutional commitment to developmental=20 education. In reality, teachers who choose to teach developmental = students must=20 have visions for those students, know they can make a difference, and be = willing=20 to work hard to help students succeed.

=20 The literature is replete with admonitions to select teachers who = are=20 interested and desire to teach underprepared students. For example, = Roueche and=20 Roueche (1993) have suggested this in the first national study on = remedial=20 programs in 1968.

Because teacher = attitudes are=20 probably related to student achievement, no teacher should be = arbitrarily=20 assigned to teach a remedial class if he or she would rather not teach = that=20 class, nor should any teacher be assigned who is only mildly = interested in=20 doing so: uninterested teachers cannot be expected to motivate = students who=20 are typically characterized by a lack of motivation.=20 (p.58)

=20 Another early warning was issued by Cross in 1976. She observed = that a=20 lack of achievement was more than a simple cognitive issue, so she = admonished=20 that knowledge of learning problems, along with interest and commitment, = were=20 critical factors in choosing staff to work with developmental students. = These=20 strong admonitions are still relevant n the 21^st century. = Selection=20 of teachers to work with this special population is an important issue = that=20 should not be taken lightly.

Principle #2: Demonstrate Good Command of the = Subject=20 Matter and the Ability to Teach a Diverse Student = Population

=20 Proficiency in subject matter is critical for developmental = education=20 teachers. Since developmental students have generally been unsuccessful = with=20 traditional instructional methods and materials, effective developmental = teachers must be able to present the subject matter in different ways, = requiring=20 teachers to have in-depth knowledge of the concepts and skills they=92re = teaching=20 as well as higher level content knowledge in the = field.

=20 When selecting teachers, it is important to follow the credential = standards set forth by the college=92s accrediting agent for all = teachers=20 including developmental education instructors. For example, the Southern = Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges (SACS; 1998) = requires,

Faculty members = who teach in=20 remedial programs must hold a baccalaureate degree in a discipline = related to=20 their assignment and have either teaching experience in a discipline = related=20 to their assignment or graduate training in remedial education. (p. = 43)=20

=20 Although subject matter knowledge that is documented by = professional=20 credentials is critical, it is not enough for effective developmental = education=20 teachers. The ability to convey that knowledge to students who lack the = subject=20 matter foundation is the major challenge. Unfortunately, many new = teachers try=20 to employ the same teaching techniques their graduate professors used=20 successfully, since this is their most recent experience with the=20 teaching/learning environment. This is one of the biggest mistakes = teachers can=20 make, especially with developmental students who may have had little = academic=20 success.

=20 First, when working with at-risk students, teaching and learning = activities must be=20 highly structured, with all requirements and standards clearly stated = (Boylan=20 & Bonham, 1998). Developmental students need to know exactly what is = expected of them and when it is due. Teaching students how to pace their = work is=20 one of the most important things a teacher can do. Students often = underestimate=20 the amount of work required and the time required to complete it, so = teachers=20 need to help students develop specific plans. A helpful strategy is to = require=20 students to turn in drafts or small segments of their work as they = proceed=20 toward the final product. Second, many developmental students require a = lot of=20 time-on-task. Scheduled and supervised activities in class, in labs, and = with=20 tutors facilitate the =93pacing skills=94 often lacking for at-risk = students. Third,=20 developmental students perform better when the curriculum they are = studying=20 relates to the real world and their specific interests (Cross, 2000). = Fourth,=20 information should be presented in small chunks that allow students to = link new=20 material to something they already know. Fifth, since developmental = education is=20 providing the foundation for more advanced learning, mastery of the = content is=20 important. If students fail to master one set of skills, concepts, or = knowledge=20 before they move on to the next level, gaps similar to the problems the = students=20 are already experiencing are created. Finally, frequent testing and = immediate=20 feedback are critical for developmental students. Wambach, Brothen, and = Dikel=20 (2000) report that many developmental students lack the ability to = provide their=20 own feedback. These authors note, =93highly skilled students are better = able to=20 know they have understood what they have read, to know whether they are = prepared=20 for an exam, and to evaluate how well they have done on exams. They know = the=20 difference between simply doing and actually learning assignments=94 (p. = 8).=20 Therefore, early, frequent, meaningful, and clear feedback is a major = factor in=20 helping students hone their metacognitive = skills.

=20 Effective teachers use knowledge of their students' varied = learning=20 styles as they plan their instruction. Boylan and Bonham (1998) report = that=20 developmental students learn in ways not generally accommodated through=20 traditional instruction. However, many teachers still teach the way they = were=20 taught. This pattern is likely to be least effective in the = developmental=20 classroom where most students failed to learn the course content in = traditional=20 high school classes; it is unlikely that they=92ll learn via the same=20 instructional methods in college. Knowledge of whether students are = visual,=20 auditory, or tactile learners and whether they prefer to work = individually or in=20 groups should shape the instructional delivery system and learning = materials=20 offered. Boylan and Bonham (1998) cite several studies which reveal that = many=20 developmental students are hands-on learners. Research indicates that=20 collaborative learning, when well structured as part of the learning = activities,=20 is helpful in getting students actively involved. Cross (2000) reports, = =93There=20 is strong support from neuroanatomy and from cognitive science for the = thesis=20 that students must actively involve themselves in their own learning=94 = (p. 28).=20 Moreover, she reports that students are well-motivated to get involved = in=20 learning when they are faced with peers who depend on them and, in turn, = nurture=20 them in challenging learning tasks. Research from Casazza and Silverman = (1996)=20 shows that students in remedial courses are more likely to be successful = when a=20 variety of instructional methods are used.

Principle #3: Address Noncognitive Issues that = Affect=20 Learning

=20 Underprepared adults in developmental education programs often = carry many=20 nonacademic problems with them when they enroll in college. Therefore, = the=20 successful developmental education teacher must develop the whole = student rather=20 than solely deal with cognitive skill deficits. According to Astin = (1984),=20 successful developmental education programs for underprepared students = must deal=20 with affective as well as cognitive needs.

=20 Teachers indicate that motivating students to learn and to = participate in=20 learning activities may be the most difficult task, especially in = working with=20 developmental students. Related affective characteristics, such as=20 self-regulation and academic procrastination, can be influenced by = motivation.=20 Kachgal, Hansen, and Nutter (2001) have reported that procrastination=20 =93compromises an individual=92s ability to set and achieve personal, = academic, and=20 career related goals=94 through self-regulated behavior. Further, = Wambach et al.=20 (2000) state that students who can self-identify skill areas that need=20 improvement and are motivated to pursue assistance to gain appropriate = skills=20 are self-regulated. =93The conscious development of self-regulation is = the task=20 that might distinguish developmental education programs from other = postsecondary=20 education programs=94 (p. 3). Some teachers, especially those with = graduate school=20 mentalities, declare that it is not their responsibility to motivate = students.=20 These teachers need to engage in professional development quickly. It = is,=20 indeed, the responsibility of developmental education and all education = to help=20 students sustain the motivation that led them to enroll in courses at = the=20 beginning of the semester and strengthen that motivation as the term = progresses.=20 Teachers are challenged to try to determine how and when students lost = their=20 motivation and help them regain that initial vision. Of course, = motivation is a=20 team effort: No teacher can motivate a student who does not want to join = the=20 effort.

=20 McCombs (1991) and the Stanford University Newsletter on = Teaching=20 (=93Speaking of,=94 1998) recommend these strategies for motivating = students: define=20 course goals and help students think about personal learning goals, make = use of=20 students=92 interests and background knowledge, show the relevance of = material,=20 teach students skills for independent learning, and give helpful and = frequent=20 feedback.

=20 Helping students set goals is critical to maintaining motivation. = Unfortunately, many teachers assume that adults in college have = well-defined=20 goals for their lives and they should recognize that the developmental = courses=20 are the first step toward achieving those goals. It is the = responsibility of the=20 teacher to help students set both short- and long-term goals. At this = point=20 professional teamwork is vital, and the teacher may need to call on the = advisors=20 to help. Goal setting may well be the factor that determines if the = student will=20 complete the developmental course and continue in school long enough to = achieve=20 those goals. Tinto (1993) reported that students who have clear goals = are more=20 likely to be retained. An effective developmental education teacher = helps each=20 student create a vision and see how the course and everyday activities = help to=20 achieve that goal, a first step that should be repeated throughout the = student=92s=20 academic career.

=20 Developing and maintaining positive self-esteem is important for=20 developmental students. Although some of them don=92t show it, they = often have low=20 self-esteem, especially in regard to academic work. Teachers can help = students=20 overcome those perceptions that impede learning by using suggestions = from=20 research: create a supportive environment among students, enhance = self-esteem=20 through comments such as =93you=92re on the right track...,=94 simplify = objectives and=20 learning, use success in learning to promote student satisfaction, = demand=20 specificity in learning, advise and coach frequently, and avoid = excessive=20 negative feedback (Presiosi, 1990).

Principle #4: Provide Open and Responsive = Learning=20 Environments

=20

=20 Cross (2000) reports, =93Research clearly shows that students who = are most=20 likely to drop out of college are students who are not connected with = the people=20 and events of the college=94 (p. 1). She notes that the connections need = not=20 always be face-to-face. They can be electronic via email or chat rooms,=20 telephone calls, or letters, but humans need some way to feel that they = belong.=20 It is easy for developmental students to convince themselves that they = are so=20 far behind that the teacher would not want them back in class. A phone = call or=20 letter can be all it takes to assure most students that they still = belong in the=20 class and they will receive support to help them catch up. It is = important for=20 teachers to obtain local telephone numbers, addresses, and e-mail = addresses from=20 students on the first day of class. Tinto (1993) reports that being = connected to=20 the classroom and college has a significant effect on=20 retention.

=20 Students need to know that teachers recognize them as = individuals.=20 Goodman (2001) has found that simply calling students=92 names aloud = when checking=20 attendance has a positive effect on attendance. He has concluded that = teachers=20 could enhance retention and attendance by orally calling the class roll = and=20 making individual comments when returning papers to=20 students.

=20 Another strategy to promote feelings of belonging is for the = teacher to=20 arrange to meet with individual students during office hours. Although = office=20 hours are posted and announced, many students will not take the = initiative to go=20 to the teacher=92s office without a personal invitation or appointment.=20 Ironically, teachers often feel rejected when students don=92t respond = to their=20 open announcement of office hours. This feeling of rejection may create = a=20 barrier between the teacher and student. Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) = report,=20 =93The educational impact of a college=92s faculty is enhanced when = their contacts=20 with students extend beyond the formal classroom to informal = non-classroom=20 settings=94 (p. 620). Such interaction gives the teacher the opportunity = to get to=20 know students better, and it helps students learn the value of using = office=20 hours that teachers set aside for them.

Principle #5: Communicate High=20 Standards

=20 It is important that academic standards in developmental classes = be=20 established in cooperation with the college-level curriculum to which = students=20 will advance (Boylan & Bonham, 1998). Teachers must have clear=20 understandings of the subsequent curriculum and how it relates to the=20 developmental education curriculum. Otherwise, they may give = developmental=20 students false security and preparation that may doom them to failure = when they=20 move into college-level work. One measure of a successful developmental=20 education program is the success of the students in subsequent courses, = data=20 used by administrators and system evaluators as well. Moreover, teachers = can=20 also use this information as one gauge of their own teaching=20 success.

=20 Maintaining high performance standards may have other benefits. = Wambach=20 et al. (2000) discuss the importance of students learning = self-regulatory=20 behaviors that help them take responsibility for their own actions and = learning.=20 They suggest that self-regulation is developed through demanding = situations.=20 Therefore, it seems important for developmental educators to hold = students to=20 high standards of excellence and = expectations.

=20 Some students, especially those who recently graduated from high = school,=20 may engage in behaviors that are disrespectful to teachers and other = students. A=20 major responsibilitiy of classroom teachers is to maintain a good = learning=20 environment for the entire class; they should not allow disrespectful = behavior=20 to disrupt this environment.

Principle #6: Engage in Ongoing Evaluation and Professional=20 Development

=20 Boylan and Bonham (1998) and Roueche and Roueche (1993) both = examined=20 successful developmental programs and identified program evaluation as a = key=20 element. However, program = evaluation does not always include faculty evaluation and subsequent = improvement=20 in faculty performance. Faculty improvement is usually achieved through=20 professional development activities that include reading professional = journals,=20 writing professional articles, taking courses, and attending = professional=20 workshops and conferences. These activities are time-consuming, but = effective=20 developmental educators make this a part of their continuing=20 education.

=20 Baiocco and DeWaters (1998) contend that professional development = is the=20 key to helping effective teachers manage change that is inherent in the=20 21^st century. Effective teachers are constantly embracing = change in=20 their quest for improvement and also applying findings from evaluation = outcomes=20 to enhance teaching effectiveness and student=20 success.

=20 Maxwell (2000) stressed the critical need for professional = development in=20 the field of developmental education: =93Few of the approximately = 104,000=20 individuals working in developmental education were specifically trained = to work=20 with developmental students, or for that matter to teach college = students=94 (p.=20 vii-xi). She adds that there are only four graduate training programs = for=20 training professionals in developmental education, =93thus most are = trained to=20 teach in specific disciplines or to work with younger or older = populations=94 (p.=20 vii-xi). She suggested developing a certification system, such as the = one=20 offered by the Kellogg Institute, to expand certification of individuals = and=20 prepare master teachers who can mentor their fellow professionals in = given=20 programs. In his policy paper to the Education Commission of the States, = Spann=20 (2000) has recommended that colleges =93require initial training and = ongoing=20 professional development by educators working with underskilled students = in a=20 multicultural society=94 (p. 3). Effective teachers wholeheartedly = embrace these=20 opportunities.

Conclusion

=20 If the democratic ideals of our educational and governmental = systems are=20 to be supported by American higher education, it is essential that = higher=20 education is truly open to all interested citizens. Further, in order = for higher=20 education to serve the needs of our general populace, quality teaching = in higher=20 education is imperative. Faculty at postsecondary institutions must = recognize=20 and embrace the importance of developing teaching skills that enhance = learning=20 for all types of students in tandem with continuing development of their = content-area knowledge.

=20 The principles for effective teaching presented in this article = apply to=20 all instructors and all students. Since many developmental students have = already=20 demonstrated a lack of success in learning environments which do not = apply such=20 principles, they may be the students most likely to fail without the = benefit of=20 instructors trained to help them meet their full potential. =93Colleges = must=20 increase the support and structure they offer at-risk students, who need = support=20 and structure more than any other students in higher education=94 = (Roueche &=20 Roueche, 1999, p. 2). Student classroom experiences provide myriad = opportunities=20 for developing the whole student. Teachers can use and apply the = principles of=20 commitment; command of subject matter and ability to teach diverse = students;=20 integration of affective skill development; provision of connected, open = learning environments; high-performance expectations; and ongoing = evaluation and=20 professional development to offer their best to=20 students.

=20 An anonymous writer defined ignorance as =93doing the same thing = over and=20 over while expecting a different outcome.=94 Unfortunately this fits the = practices=20 of some colleges and teachers as they relate to instructing = developmental=20 students. Colleges must support effective teaching in developmental = education as=20 a base and expand it across the entire curriculum in order to avoid = dismal=20 outcomes. The application of principles for effective teaching will help = better=20 prepare teachers in their quest to assist students in meeting their=20 goals.

&nbs= p; = ; = &= nbsp; &n= bsp; &nb= sp; &nbs= p; = ; =20

References

= Astin, A.=20 (1984). A look at pluralism in the contemporary = student=20 population. NASPA Journal, 21(3), 2-11.

=20 Baiocco, S.A., & DeWaters, J.N. (1998). = Successful college teaching: Problem-solving strategies of = distinguished=20 professors. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & = Bacon.

=20 Boylan, H.R., & Bonham, B.S. (1998, March). Improving=20 developmental education: What we=92ve learned from 30 years of = research. Paper=20 presented at the National Association for Developmental Education = Conference,=20 Detroit,=20 MI.
= ; = &= nbsp; &n= bsp; &nb= sp; &nbs= p; = ; = =20

=20 Boylan, H.R., Bonham, B.S., Jackson, J., & Saxon, D.P. = (1994).=20 Staffing patterns in developmental education programs: Full-time, = part-time,=20 credentials, and program placement. Research in Developmental = Education,=20 11(5), 1-4.

=20 Casazza, M., & Silverman, C. (1996). Learning assistance = and=20 developmental education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

=20 Chickering, A.W., & Gamson, Z.F. (1987). Seven principles for = good=20 practice in undergraduate education. American Association for Higher=20 Education Bulletin, 39(7), 3-7.

=20 Chickering, A.W., & Reisser, L. (1993). Education and=20 identity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

=20 Cohen, A.M., & Brawer, F.B. (1982). The American community = college. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

=20 Cross, P. (1976). Accent on learning. San Francisco:=20 Jossey-Bass.

=20 Cross, P. (2000). Collaborative learning 101. The Cross papers = #=20 4. Mission Viejo, CA: League for Innovation in the Community = College,=20 Educational Testing Service. &nbs= p; =20

=20 Goodman, M. (2001). Attending to attendance for retention and = results. In=20 NISOD Abstracts XXIII (p. 27). Austin: University of Texas at=20 Austin.

=20 Kachgal, M.M., Hansen, L.S., & Nutter, K.T. (2001). Academic=20 procrastination prevention/intervention: Strategies and = recommendations.=20 Journal of Developmental Education, 25(1), 2-12.

=20 Maxwell, M. (2000). Forward. In R.F. Flippo & D.C. Caverly = (Eds.),=20 Handbook of Reading and Study Strategy Research (pp. vii-xi). = Mahwah, NJ:=20 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

=20 McCombs, B. (1991). Motivation and lifelong learning. = Educational=20 Psychology, 26(3&4), 117-127.

&nbs= p; =20

=20 National Center for Education Statistics. (2001). Percent of=20 degree-granting institutions offering remedial services, by type and = control of=20 institution; 1987-88 to 2000-01. Digest of Education Statistics, = 2001.=20 Retrieved February 8, 2003 from=20 http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/digest2001/tables/dt313.asp

=20 Pascarella, E.T., & Terenzini, P.T. (1991). How college = affects=20 students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

=20 Preziosi, R. (1990, November). Instructors impact on self-esteem. = The=20 Teaching Professor, 4(9), 5.

=20 Roueche, J.E., & Roueche, S.D. (1993). Between a rock and = a hard=20 place: The at-risk student in the open-door college. Washington, DC: = The=20 American Association of Community Colleges, The Community College=20 Press.

=20 Roueche, J.E., & Roueche, S.D. (1999). High stakes, high=20 performance: Making remedial education work. Washington, DC: = American=20 Association of Community Colleges, The Community College = Press.

=20 Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on = Colleges.=20 (1998). Criteria for accreditation commission on colleges. = Decatur, GA:=20 Author.

=20 Spann, M.G. (2000). Remediation: A must for the = 21^st=20 century learning society. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the = States=20 (ECS).

=20 Speaking of teaching. (1998, Fall). Stanford University = Newsletter on=20 Teaching, 10(1), 2-4.

=20 Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and = cures of=20 student attrition (2^nd ed.). Chicago: University of = Chicago=20 Press.

=20 Volkwein, J.F., & Cabrera, A. (1998, June). Student = measures=20 associated with favorable classroom experiences. Paper presented at = the=20 Association of Institutional Research (AIR) Annual Forum, Minneapolis,=20 MN.

=20 Wambach, C., Brothen, T. & Dikel, T. (2000). Toward a developmental = theory=20 for developmental educators. Journal of Developmental Education, = 24(1),=20 2-10.